Introduction to Investigative Journalism: Finding Sources and Backgrounding People, Public Records, Freedom of Information

Indian journalist Srishti Jaswal knew her sources for two years before they became key interviewees in her investigation of propaganda by India’s ruling party.

The independent reporter, a Pulitzer Center AI Accountability fellow, teamed up with Princeton University’s Digital Witness Lab to examine Narendra Modi’s Bharatiya Janata Party’s (BJP) use of WhatsApp to campaign free from public scrutiny. Though the data drove the story, it benefited from Jaswal’s long-term relationship with her sources: the workers running the campaign on the messaging platform.

“I think a lot of people don’t have the patience to pursue sources for a long time. So patience and time are key. India is so polarized that many journalists hesitate to talk to BJP sources,” she said when asked how she developed sources in her story.

Jaswal dedicated time not only to getting more information from sources but to establishing a professional relationship with them. In fact, when she met the BJP workers, she didn’t have the story in mind yet. After all, political propaganda in India, as in many countries, runs year-round. She was curious about the work they do and why they do it. Gradually, she gained their trust and, in turn, she gained insider knowledge, the type of information investigative reporters aim to have. By then, the elections, a prime political event, were nearing. Jaswal was perfectly positioned to report on the issue.

Jaswal’s experience shows that finding sources isn’t merely about looking for interviewees but also about building trust and cultivating relationships with people. The more she knew about their world, the more trust and respect she earned and the easier it became for her to learn about what they do.

Ultimately, sourcing is a process that starts with thinking about our goals for seeking a source and continues even after we turn off the record button. In this chapter, we share a step-by-step guide for finding sources for an investigation and the tips and tools for each phase.

Identifying People and Paper Sources

Set a goal for seeking a source. Using Mark Lee Hunter’s definition — later adapted by Eva Constantaras and Anastasia Valeeva for data-driven reports — a story is composed of:

• The present (what is happening now or the “problem”);
• The past (this is how we got to this point or the “cause”); and
• The future (this is what will happen if nothing changes… and here is how we could change things for the better or the “impact” and “solution”).

Following this framework, we can think of people and documentary sources by the kind of information or evidence they can provide. Case studies, often members of the community affected by programs and policies, are frequently sought to help us understand the impact of a government policy or program, for example. Government officials, business owners, or people who need to be held accountable, meanwhile, are pursued to establish cause. Expert sources could also be interviewed to explain the impact of and the solution to the problem in a story.

To illustrate, former Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism (PCIJ) multimedia reporter Cherry Salazar spent several days with the fishermen of coastal villages in Batangas City, Philippines to learn how their way of life is being changed or “impacted” by liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects being built in their fishing grounds. The LNG projects are considered the “problem” in the story.

She shares a strategy on how she chooses people to interview: “I always try to look for a compelling character who represents and ‘humanizes’ the story. Whenever possible, I also prefer interviews where you could ‘feed two birds with one scone.’”

Salazar’s main character in The Last Fishermen of Ilijan was a local fisherman whose forefathers also fished so he was able to describe and compare fish catch before and during the construction of the projects. The same interviewee also talked about how he could not benefit from the construction jobs being offered by project proponents because of his age.

“That interview showed both the impact of LNG projects to fisherfolk and how the alternate livelihoods they would supposedly provide were practically tokenistic,” the journalist said. 

She then established the “cause” by weaving documents and data with interviews with experts and government officials to describe the “detour” the Philippine government is taking away from renewable energy.

The idea is basic but setting clear goals or knowing the kind of information we can obtain from sources can help inform strategies for finding and dealing with them. Impact interviews such as those done by Salazar with fisherfolk and Jaswal with workers are the type that merit a lot of time to allow sources to get comfortable to speak with the reporters. Expert sources, meanwhile, can be identified during the reporting period, especially when new findings emerge. Accountability interviews, on the other hand, like those with government officials or private companies, need to be done after substantial reporting has been conducted.

Seek, but be careful with, “currents,” “formers,” and whistleblowers. In the book, “The Investigative Reporter’s Handbook: A Guide to Documents, Databases, and Techniques,” Brant Houston classifies potential sources by dividing them into “currents” and “formers.” “Currents” are people who belong to or have business with an organization such as current secretaries, current staff personnel, or current suppliers, contractors, and consultants. They are relatively easy to find via website directories or through reporters covering agencies daily. “Formers” are those who belonged to or had dealings with an organization.

Knowing the extent and limitation of the information both these sources could provide as well as their motivations to speak should help guide journalists on how to better plan and conduct the interviews.

For example, we are looking into allegations of bid rigging in government road projects in the bailiwick of a high-ranking official. Former contractors are much more likely to speak freely about their experience bidding for projects, but they might not be privy to up-to-date developments in the procurement process. Current contractors, meanwhile, are likely to exercise caution when speaking with journalists or agree to speak only “on background” or if they are not named. Understanding these scenarios, or what people could gain or lose by giving an interview, helps journalists know how to approach sources.

Another type of source is the whistleblower, who could either be a “current” or a “former.” Houston describes them as either “seek(ing) attention or find(ing) themselves unwillingly in the spotlight because they know of wrongdoing.” Exposing government or corporate transgression is important but the level of whistleblowing in countries varies because not all jurisdictions have whistleblower protection laws, especially in restricted democracies.

Altruistic whistleblowers may indeed provide correct information, but like with all pieces of evidence, you’ll need to verify it with multiple sources. Others might be purposely incorrect or misleading in their claims because they have ulterior motives. They either want payback, are disgruntled, or want to hurt your reputation. In any case, journalists who find or are approached by these types of sources must understand that they need to verify their assertions.

Developing a “documents state of mind.” Investigative reporting is a constant exercise of multiple sourcing and verification. While interviewing people, journalists have to consult records. At the same time, as journalists pore over documents, they have to verify their findings with expert sources. This is the process of building the so-called “wall” of evidence where documents and data are like the bricks needed to build the wall, while interviews are the mortar that holds the bricks together and keeps it intact. Investigations usually cannot stand on quotes or anecdotes from interviews alone. The same goes for documents because, like people, records can also lie.

Coined by the investigative reporting duo Donald L. Barlett and James B. Steele, “documents state of mind” means knowing that a document exists somewhere to explore, contradict, or confirm each point of an investigation.

When an official claims during a press conference that road projects have lifted farmers out of poverty, a journalist must be able to identify and obtain the records needed to prove or disprove that claim. These could mean seeking documents such as contracts, agricultural outputs, farming community profiles, and poverty incidence data.

Here are some ideas on where to obtain documents. We can divide them by source, either from the government or submitted to the government and from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or private persons.

Government

• Local government bodies or ministries
• Law enforcement units
• Courts
• National archives
• Stock exchanges or agencies regulating businesses

Non-government

• Local civil society groups
• International organizations or non-profits
• Academic researchers
• Commercial databases
• Property records

And, of course, via Freedom of Information or FOI requests.

Documents shared by officials are acceptable, but one may never rely on them solely. Remember that these are documents “supplied” to us and might often be of little value to our probe. Investigative reporters need to exercise “demand” by identifying records that they need and filing requests for those records. These may come in the form of public records requests or FOI or FOIA requests in countries where Freedom of Information laws exist. In many countries, this is perhaps one of the most basic yet underrated skills of a journalist.

David Cuillier and Charles N. Davis put together a comprehensive guide in their book “The Art of Access: Strategies for Acquiring Public Records.” For beginners, it’s important to know about our right to information. While not all countries have or implement FOI laws, the right to information (RTI) is included in the UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Access to information is a basic human right. Despite not having legal guarantees, some journalists are still able to obtain documents. The attempts are not always successful, but journalists shouldn’t let this dissuade them from trying.

At a minimum, reporters must be able to write effective letters, track requests consistently, and, in the case of getting incomplete documents or redacted files or request denials, learn how to negotiate or deal with government officials and employees. This could mean asserting our right to information, appealing, or going up the ladder. In some cases, newsrooms with resources could also file a lawsuit against the agency.

Finding Sources

Once your goals are set, various tools and strategies can be applied to finding or locating sources. They may depend on the kind of story you’re working on, but here are some general tips budding investigative reporters may find useful.

Read previous reporting. Check both local and international news reports for source inspiration. While the story you’re working on could be localized, examples of reporting being done elsewhere can give you an idea of the types of sources other journalists have successfully sought out. This exercise also allows you to map what has been reported already on the issue and where you can add value.

Take stock of the current body of research and seek academic sources. More often than not, academics have written extensively about the topic you’re working on or a topic related to your story. The researchers themselves serve as potential good sources because they could help you understand the lay of the land, or provide new insights that other sources could not provide. This certainly applies to stories that require technical knowledge.

For example, in the collaboration between PCIJ and NBC News that connected the endangerment of pristine rainforests in Palawan, Philippines to automakers in the U.S., Andrew W. Lehren and his reporting team in New York City, talked to a water quality expert and a soil science professor to explain the risk of having high levels of chromate in water. These inputs verified anecdotes from people exposed to the water, which helped highlight the need to address the contamination.

Tap civil society for contacts. Civil society organizations (CSOs) or NGOs typically do their research for their campaigns. They could be sources, but they could also help journalists get in touch with members of the community impacted by a government project or program, for example. While nothing usually prevents a journalist from going directly to a source, a short email or a text introducing a reporter to a farmer-leader or a member of an indigenous group could go a long way. This could help ensure that a journalist is connected with the right person, especially in the context of issues where community members are divided. CSOs have long become a go-to source for reporters, but the general rule still applies that any information obtained from them or any other source must be verified.

Tip: In jurisdictions or countries where public information is difficult to obtain, check with CSO or NGO members who have been consulted by government agencies about a certain policy or program. They can in turn provide information or insights that may be otherwise difficult to get through formal government requests.

Crowdsource, when applicable. For stories that involve a certain segment of the population, i.e., migrant workers, digital laborers, biking communities, and the like, joining their groups on Facebook or messaging platforms can be a good way to find sources who may otherwise be difficult to find. Strategies for crowdsourcing differ depending on the nature of the story. In cases where a journalist is geographically limited, crowdsourcing through online means works best and journalists in this scenario typically have to introduce themselves properly and disclose their purpose. But for the kinds of stories that are related to cybercrime or illicit activities online, journalists need to exercise caution when looking for interviewees. This may include considering the use of dummy accounts to initially protect their privacy. For example, the reporters who were part of a cross-border collaboration that exposed digital sex crimes in Asia used alternate user profiles to find sources and observe activities done online.

If you encounter a similar need, consider checking with your editor or lawyer first before creating dummy accounts to ensure that this does not go against any local regulation.

Tip: Understand the limits of crowdsourcing. Looking for sources online doesn’t always work. Some sources are discouraged from responding the moment they find out that you’re a journalist. It is advisable to mix crowdsourcing with other modes of locating sources. 

Expand your sourcing arsenal. It’s great to be able to build a network of sources, but even when developments happen quickly, reporters should strive to look for sources who can provide new and nuanced perspectives on an issue. Go beyond your comfort zone of usual sources.

In each part of the story development, taking the Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) perspective is a good way to help ensure that the reporting amplifies unheard voices. For instance, a majority of contacts for infrastructure and technology-related stories are typically male. Remember that inclusion brings depth to a story, can make it more complete, or might even change it for the better.

Let’s say a journalist is working on a story about the rise of “smart cities” in the Global South where most basic community needs are still unmet (Smart cities use modern information and communication technology to improve their infrastructure). Applying the GESI approach to this story could mean striving to get a female civil engineer even when male ones are easily accessible. While both can offer substantial expert knowledge on the matter, there are issues that a female engineer could usually spot immediately that a male might not, such as the need for more space for toilets in a facility or having proper sidewalks. Mothers require spacious public toilets to comfortably attend to their children’s needs and, as in many cultures the majority of women don’t drive, proper sidewalks are important.

Tip: Reassess and expand your contact list. Look for experts from underrepresented groups.

Backgrounding Sources

Backgrounding sources is key to the success of an interview. Once you have found or have secured an interview with a source, researching and coming up with a profile about them could help inform your interview strategy. In many cases, solid backgrounding can assist the journalist in vetting information provided by sources.

Here are some general tools and tips for backgrounding sources:

Go online, find multiple sources. The keyword here is “multiple.” We know that not everything shared online is accurate so not relying on a single source can set us up to a good start in our backgrounding. This means gathering information about our sources in open networks such as articles or other materials published on the web, including social media accounts, comment sections of a news article, or even in obscure places, like gaming platforms.

Salazar said she often uses Boolean searches on social media and search engines to check for the profiles, affiliations, and public statements made by interviewees.

“Backgrounding helps identify potential biases and motivations. What would the source gain from doing the interview? Do they want to raise awareness for advocacies or gain media exposure to advance their careers or political standing? These are important considerations, too,” she added.

Here are some tools journalists should have in their backgrounding toolbox:

Who posted what?

Whopostedwhat.com is a keyword search tool that allows reporters to search for posts, images, and videos by date and subject on Facebook. Created by Henk van Ess, Daniel Endresz, Dan Nemec, and Tormund Gerhardsen, the tool offers a way to systematically search Facebook which receives massive amounts of data through user activities. Think of it as a filter if you want to search who posted about a certain topic or issue.

Image: Screenshot, Who posted what?

WhatsMyName

This app searches for a username across nearly 600 different online platforms. In the example below, Philippine former senator Manny Pacquiao’s username “@MannyPacquiao” appears in at least 63 sites. Use this app cautiously, as we cannot expect that all of the accounts shown are indeed related to the retired professional boxer, but they can be useful for backgrounding and finding connections beyond his political or sporting activities.

Image: Screenshot, WhatsMyName

Wayback Machine

The nonprofit Internet Archive created the Wayback Machine as a way to build a digital library of internet sites. Started in 1996, the website archives more than a billion web pages every day. This is useful for journalists when searching for information about a subject that may have been deleted.

Image: Screenshot, Wayback Machine

Search social media. GIJN has come up with various resources on backgrounding people. For an updated guide on doing online research, check out Hank van Ess’s seven-chapter guide on how to use Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, TikTok, Telegram, and X to gather information about people and subjects online. Van Ess also created a chapter on using facial recognition technology and best practices for putting these tools together in verifying claims online.

Go offline, file records requests. Backgrounding is best done when online research is complemented by information gathered through other people or documentary sources that are not available online. Asking journalists who have reported on the same topic or who have dealt with a certain subject can provide additional insights about a person’s personal and professional affairs, including his or her family background, business connections, friends, or personal interests.

Depending on the nature of your investigation, filing public records requests is also a good way to profile a subject. Here’s a GIJN guide on filing FOI requests. For public officials, reporters should, at a minimum, obtain wealth declarations, curriculum vitae, court cases, and campaign finance reports. If they have business ties, reporters should also obtain corporate records, financial statements, and copies of contracts.

For private individuals who own a business or have business ties, some information may be found by getting records related to the activities of their companies or business entities regulated by the government. This includes company license and registration records, general information sheets, financial statements, court records, and blacklists. Typically, these may be accessed through agencies that regulate business, courts, or procurement offices, if such records are publicly available.

Establishing Rapport with Sources

Rapport, or the relationship built between a journalist and his or her sources, is crucial to the success of a reporting project and is largely defined by the kind of story we’re doing. The relationship of a journalist with community sources would typically be different than with subjects who must be held accountable.

Jaswal recommends using the curiosity lens when seeking sources. When she was speaking with BJP workers in her story “Inside the BJP’s WhatsApp Machine,” she said she never approached her sources with an accountability lens.

“I always approached them with a curiosity lens. So whenever I met them, even when I met them for the first time, I told them that I’m just curious about [their] work. I never tried to school them. ‘You know, what you’re doing is wrong.’ I never tried to tell them that. So I never really judged them for doing their work,” she said.

Meanwhile, giving those who need to be held accountable a fair shake by allowing them ample time to respond and applying the “no-surprises letter” technique are basic requirements. No surprises means subjects are made aware of what will be revealed in the story.

Journalist Salazar, who has placed many people in front of the camera, said that creating a comfortable space for the interview is an often-overlooked element. Sources willing to share confidential information need to be in a space or platform they feel is safe for them. Sources who may be cautious about dealing with journalists need to feel that the interview is necessary for them to be able to share information or respond to issues. This doesn’t mean that the interview must be patronizing or non-critical, but it should be free from notions of prejudgment and hostility.

“This is also true for ordinary citizens who take the time to share a private aspect of their lives. Having access to a person’s struggles [through interviews] to me is also bearing witness. And that’s a privilege we get as journalists. They deserve to feel listened to,” she said.

Case Studies

Blind Trust, by Kateryna Rodak and Nataliya Onysko, NGL.media, March 2023

This investigation conducted by Kateryna Rodak and Nataliya Onysko of NGL.media revealed medical malpractice that led to 22 Ukrainians losing their eyesight. Powered by multiple interviews, the reporters used their professional and social skills to encourage doctors and other witnesses to speak. This led to the discovery that healthcare workers, in some cases, were pocketing money by replacing expensive drugs with cheaper or counterfeit versions and charging patients for the original medicine.

Secret Corridors, by Joseph Poliszuk, Ma. Antonieta Segovia, and María de los Ángeles Ramírez, Armando.info, January 2022

In 2022, the Venezuelan investigative news outlet Armando.info and Spanish publication El País used machine learning to identify and expose a vast network of illegal mining operations in southern Venezuela. The investigation won the Global Shining Light Awards (Large Outlets Category) at the 13th Global Investigative Journalism Conference held in Sweden in September 2023. The use of innovative tools was highlighted in this investigation, but the careful people trail Maria de los Angeles Ramirez conducted on the ground was just as crucial to support the story. She was able to “ground truth” the data or confirm what their team was seeing in the database.

Stolen Privacy: The Rise of Image-Based Abuse in Asia, by Raquel Carvalho, South China Morning Post, May 2023

This series of reports examines layers of image abuse in several Asian countries. South China Morning Post reporter Raquel Carvalho carefully balanced the need to obtain and verify information from victims and survivors while making sure that they are not re-victimized in the process.

Karol Ilagan is a Filipino journalist and journalism educator. Before joining the faculty of the University of the Philippines Diliman, she led investigations and collaborative projects at the Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, a Manila-based nonprofit. Currently, she teaches investigative reporting and data journalism, with research interests in digital disruption, media sustainability, and journalism innovation in restricted democracies. Ilagan is a member of the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists and has been a fellow with the Pulitzer Center’s Rainforest Investigations and AI Accountability networks. She is also an alumna of the University of Missouri Columbia, where she was a Fulbright scholar.